INTRODUCTION:

As per the World Health Organization, plants are best source to access a various medicines. So that, such system considered gain a complete knowledge of its characteristics, safety and effectiveness.¹By considering the whole person rather than just isolated symptoms, traditional systems like Ayurveda promote balanced lifestyles and preventive care.

In Ayurvedic system of medicine, it is referred as "science of life," is an oldest medical system practiced in India. It is strongly based on prevention of disease and healthpromotion.²

Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) around the world includes a variety of traditional practices, including herbal remedies. CAM treatments can be used alongside conventional medical therapies (complementary) or as alternatives to them.

Herbal preparations have become especially popular for conditions that may not respond effectively to modern treatments, offering patients more diverse healthcare options.

This blending of traditional knowledge with modern medical practices is transforming health and wellness perspectives, driving increased research and validation of herbal medicines within the broader medical community.³

Semecarpus anacardium linn. (Family: Anacardia family) can be found mainly in the sub-Himalayan regions and central India. It is a "Marknut" and is called asBhallataka or Bhilawa locally. Bhallataka is referenced in the Valmiki Ramayana and holds significant importance in ancient Indian medicine, also referred to as Ardha-Vaidya in Ayurveda, which translates to "half physician”. This plant includes significant importance in indigenous medicine, where its various parts are utilized for their therapeutic properties such as anticancer, asthma, antiarthritis, mayocardial infraction, antidiabetic, piles, worm infestation, urticarial, etc.⁴

The nut is particularly valued for its applications in traditional healing practices, commonly fornumber of diseases, including skin disorders and respiratory issues.

Its bioactive compounds contribute to its medicinal efficacy, making it a key ingredient in various herbal formulations. The integration of Semecarpus anacardium in traditional medicine highlights the importance of plant-based remedies in holistic health approaches.⁵

Etymology:

The word semecarpusderived from a Greek word “simeon” which means tomark and “carpus” meaning nut while anacardium means cardium i.e. heart. European name is marking nut, it produce water insoluble permanent mark on clothes.

It is a significant plant in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurveda and Siddha systems. Its medicinal properties are due to various bioactive compounds in its nuts. The diverse phytochemical composition of Semecarpus anacardium underlines its importance in herbal medicine.

By isolating active compounds and studying their structure–function relationships, we can gain deeper insights into the pharmacological mechanisms of Semecarpus anacardium nut extracts.

Taxonomical classification:

Kingdom:	Plantae
Subdivion:	Tracheobionta
Superdivision:	Spermatophyta
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Subclass:	Rosidae
Order:	Sapindales
Family:	Anacardiaceae
Genus:	Semecar pus
Species:	Anacardium

Local Names:

Sanskrit: Antahsattva, Arusharah, Aruskara, Ballata, Bhallatakah, Viravrksa, Visasya.

English: Indian scale nut tree, swamp nut tree, eastern cashew nut.

Hindi: Bhela, Bhelwa, Bhilawa, Bhilwa Erimugi.

Urdu: Baladur, Billar, Bhilavan.

Nepali: Bhalaayo, Bhella, Bheli, Bheul, Bhellataka, Bhalah, Timgsi, Khursin, Baral.⁶

Plant Morphology/Botanical Description:

Fig. No.1. Semecarpus anacardium Linn. Leaves and plant

Semecarpus anacardium is a medium-sized tree having broad-leaves characterized by its coarse bark and bitter juice; that thrives in hot regions outside the Himalayas, particularly in India (Assam, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa) and parts of Australia. It typically grows to a height of 10-15 meters and prefers tropical and dry climates. Bhallataka, also known as Semecarpus anacardium, is indeed known for its sweet and astringent taste, and it is considered to have heating properties in Ayurvedic medicine.⁷

Root: Long taproot that extends deep into the soil.

Bark: Gray in color, it secretes an irritant when cut and yields "cashew nut shell liquid" (CNSL), which has various industrial and medicinal uses.

Stem: Erect, strong, and woody with a rough texture.

Leaves: Large, irregular, crowded, and oblong or obvate-oblong, with a rounded apex and coriaceous texture. The leaves are smooth on top and immature underneath.

Pedicel: Shorter than the leaves.

Flowers: greenish white Small, sub-sessile. Flowers bloom in panicles from May to June, appearing alongside new leaves.

Fruits: The tree produces smooth, shiny black oval nuts (about 2.5cm long) and fruit that ripens between December and March (2-3cm wide).

Ovary: Subglobose and densely pilose, crowned with three styles.

Drupe: 2.15 - 4.5cm long, bean-shaped, ovoid, and soft, appears shiny black when ripe.

Geographical Availability:

It can be found all over the world, from South Australia to Africa's Coromandel Coast, East Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, South Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Malaysia, the Western Peninsula, Nepal, India North Africa, North Australia and other countries. In India it is found in hot regions such as Bihar, Karnataka, Konkan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengalen and Odisha,⁸

Fig.No.2. Semecarpus anacardium Linn. nuts

Plant use According to Local Medical System:

As per Ayurvedicsystem of medicine:

Semecarpus anacardium nuts possesses several properties:

Rasa (taste): Bitter (Tikta), Pungent (Katu), and Astringent (Kashava).

Guna (qualities): Easy to digest (Laghu), Piercing (Teekshna), Unctuous (Snigda), and Hot (Ushna).

The sweet, ripe fruit of Bhallatakahelps in digestion, balances vata and kaphadoshas, and has healing properties for wounds, skin issues, piles, inflammation, bloating, and ascitic infestations. Additionally, it improves malabsorption and offers high nutritional value. The seed also helps balance vata and pitta doshas. The fruit of the plant is effective in pacifying pitta dosha, stimulating the digestive system, and promoting hair growth. Both the fruit and its oil are beneficial for conditions like neuritis, rheumatic pain, and gout. Detoxificatedfruit is used to improve vision, extend lifespan, and treat various skin diseases. In Ayurvedic system of medicine the nut is recognized as, for managing diabetes, promoting wound healing, treating urinary tract infections, and combating anemia. Additionally, it acts as a neurotonic and is useful in treating tumors of the oesophagus, skin, and liver.

Several Ayurvedic preparations available in India include:

Sanjivani Vathi, Bhallataka Rasavana, Amrita Bhallataka Ghrita.⁹

As per Siddha System of Medicine:

SerankottaiNei is a medicated ghee prepared from the extract of nuts of Semecarpus anacardium. This popular Siddha formulation is used to treat various conditions, including cancer, neurological pain, lung infections like tuberculosis, and autoimmune disorders such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Another Siddha formulation is Kalpaamruthaa.¹⁰

Phytochemistry:

The most significant components of the Semecarpus anacardium are bhilwanols, phenolic compounds, sterols and glycosidesand bioflavonoids. Bhilwanol, an alkaloid, is isolated from oilandseeds. An argan oil contains bhilavinol, a mixture of phenolic compounds whose main components are1, 2-dihydroxy-3(pentadecenyl-8,11) benzene and 1,2-dihydroxy-3(pentadecenyl-8) benzene.¹¹In a fruit, Bhilwanol is present as a mixture of cis and trans isomer of ursuhenol. Theintermediate lipids such as glycolipids and phospholipids are most abundant lipids present in seed oils. The main fatty acids are linoleic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid. The main sterol compounds arecampesterol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol. The main tocopherol is d-tocopherol, followed by b-tocopherol. Semecarpus anacardium seed oil showed strong free radical scavenging activity. (S.A.S.)¹². It contains vitamins like thiamine, niacin and riboflavin. It also contains amino acids such as leucine, lysine, methionine, histidine, isoleucine, arginine, threonine, valine. Other isolated compounds are: anacardiside, jeediflavanone, semekarpetin, nallaflavanone, semekarpuflavanone, galluflavanone, anakarduflavanone, diolefin II, monoolefin I, bhilawanol-A, bhilawanol-B, etc. TetrahydrorobustaflavoneB (Tetrahydromenthaflavone), Semekarpuflavan, jeediflavanoneand gulluflavone, Minerals. A new phenolic glycoside, anacardin, was isolated from the seeds and found to be -1-O-AA D-glucopyranosyl-(1,6)-ÃÂ -D-glucopyranosyloxy-3-Hydroxy-5-methylbenzene. The corrosive property of water is attributed to the phenolic acids C₁₆H₁₅O₃.COOH₁₃ and C₁₄H₁₃O₃.COOH contained in it. The peel oil contains phenolic compounds such as flavonoids, catechols and anacardic acid.¹⁴

Nut oil contains a mixture of phenolic compounds. Calcium oxalate crystals and oil gland are present in mesocarp parenchyma.

Other isolated components aresemecarpetin, anacardol, anacardic acid, cardol, catechol, fixed oil, anacardoside and semecarpol. The kernel oil contains; palmitic acid - 16%; oleic acid- 60.6%; linoleic acid- 17.1%; stearic acid- 3.8%; arachidic acid- 1.4%.¹⁵

Table 2: Phyoconstituents and physicochemical properties present in Semecarpus anacardium seed oil.

Parameters	Amount	Physicochemical Properties	Amount
Total Phenols (mg/g)	157.7	Saponification Value (mg KOH/g)	195.74
Saponins (mg/g)	133	Acid Value (mg KOH/g)	420.25
Flavonoids (mg/g)	83.8	Iodine Value (mg I₂/g)	647.16
Tannins (mg/g)	17.5	Peroxide value (meqO₂/kg)	11.42
Loss of drying 110c (%w/w)	6.68	PH	3.1
Ash Value	2.68	Viscosity (cP)	290
Methanol soluble extractive (%w/w)	35.40	Relative Density (gm/ml)	0.8476
Water soluble extractive (%w/w)	6.99

Extraction methods specifying parts of plant:

Roots:

Harvesting: Roots were harvested.

Air-Drying: The roots were air-dried.

Powdering: The dried roots were ground into a powder.

Sample Measurement: 25g of the powdered sample was taken.

Extraction Setup: 250ml of aqueous and ethanolic solvents were prepared.

Extraction Method: Soxhlet extraction was conducted until the solvent turned dark, the powder lost color.

Solvent Evaporation: The solvents were evaporated to dryness using a rotavator.

Storage: The dried extracts were stored in Eppendorf tubes at 4°C.

Activity: Antibacterial¹⁶

Stem:

Collection of Plant Materials: Fresh stalk barks of Semecarpus anacardium Linn. was collected.

Extract preparation:

The stem barks washed and shade dried. After shade drying barks were powdered by using an electrical grinder.

The powder was further dried overnight below 50°C in an oven.

Extraction Process: The powder material was extracted with 96% ethanol at room temperature. The extraction bottles kept at room temperature for 7-10 days, with trembling and stirring occasionally.

Filtration: The extract was firstly filtered through cotton and then filtered through Whatman Filter Paper No.1.

Defatting: Filterate determined by petroleum ether and repeated extraction.

Evaporation: The extract was evaporated using rotary evaporator.

Final Yield: The final concentrated ethanol extract was stored in desiccator to dry and form a solid mass. The yield obtained was 15g of extract from 800g of plant powder.

Activity: Antidiabetic¹⁷

Leaves:

Sample Collection: Leaves of Semecarpus anacardium L. were collected.

Herbarium Preparation: The entire branch of S. anacardium was pressed against a wooden box for plant specimen preparation. The pressed facility was transferred to standard herb leaves to confirm system identification.

Shade Drying of Leaves: The leaves were washed by using tap water to remove dust and foreign particles. The cleaned leaves were shade-dried for 8 days.

Preparation of Powder: Shade-dried leaves were ground using an electric mixer and stored in a plastic container.

Extraction Process: Around 25g of powdered leaves were extracted in 250ml of aqueous and ethanolic solvents. Extraction was carried out by Soxhlet apparatus.

Evaporation and Storage: The extract was evaporated using rotary evaporator and stored in Eppendorftubes at 4°C.

Activity: Antimicrobial.¹⁸

Fruits: Preparation of extracts: Real samples (whole fruit) of Semecarpus anacardium were obtained from a local market. Extracts obtained (1.0kg per batch) were used in two ways.

In method-I

Crushing and Extraction: 1.0kg of S. anacardium fruit was crushed and extracted with methanol by using Soxhlet apparatus for 32hours.

Solvent Removal: The methanol extract (200g) was concentrated by removing the solvent under reduced pressure (10mm).

Partitioning: The methanol extract was transferred to a separating funnel and distributed between 2L of chloroform, 2L of water (containing 200mL methanol).

The contents were trembled vigorously for 20 minutes, then occasionally and left overnight.

Separation of Layers: The chloroform layer (2L) was separated and concentrated.

Second Partitioning: The concentrated chloroform extract was again partitioned between: 2L of petroleum ether, 2L of methanol (containing 200ml water).

Chromatography: The methanol-partitioned fraction was transferred for chromatography on silica gel (60-120 mesh).

Final Product: The benzene-eluted fraction yielded a resinous material with abrown-colored yield of 0.5%.

Method II:

The whole fruit of S. anacardium was initially cold-extracted with petroleum ether (60-80°C) by percolation. The residue was then subjected to Soxhlet extraction with a series of solvents in succession petroleum ether (60-80°C), benzene, chloroform, ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol. After extraction, the solvents were removed under reduced pressure (10mm) to yield the corresponding extracts for further analysis.

Activity: Antitumor.¹⁹

Seeds:

Preparation of Seeds: Seeds were cut into small pieces and kept it for shade drying. The dried seeds were ground into a coarse powder using a mechanical grinder.

Initial Fat Removal: The coarse seed powder was subjected to Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether to completely eleminate all fats.

Extraction with Solvents: After drying the marc (residue from petroleum ether extraction), it was extracted sequentially for 72hours using the following solvents in order Water, Butanol, Methanol, Chloroform.

Concentration of Extracts: The extracts were concentrated by removing the solvents and dried.

Phytochemical Screening: Each concentrate was subjected to a phytochemical examination to test for the presence of various bioactive compounds, including unsaturated fats, steroids, flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, terpenoids.

Activity: Anti-inflammatory²⁰

Folk Medicine:

Semecarpus anacardium, or Bhallataka, is a revered medicinal plant in Ayurveda, with its therapeutic properties extensively detailed in ancient texts like those of Sushrut, Charak and Vagbhatt. It has both internal and external applications, effectively treating various conditions, including tumors, fevers, skin diseases, hemoptysis, vaginal discharge, excessive menstruation, constipation, deficient lactation, and intestinal parasites. However, detoxification is essential before use, as the nuts can be toxic if not prepared properly.

Common detoxification methods include rubbing the seeds with brick powder and washing them with warm water, or suspending them in coconut water and heating for about three hours.²¹

The oil from Semecarpus anacardium (Bhallataka) is used medicinally, often mixed with food or mustard oil.

Its applications include boiling seeds in milk and applying oil to wounds for healing and pus prevention, especially when combined with onion, garlic, and ajavayana in sesame oil. Bhallataka treatsfilariasisand glandular swellings and serves as a blood purifier, brain tonic, and haematinic tonic.

A powder mix with Terminalia chebula, Sesamum indicum seeds, and jaggery helps chronic rheumatic disorders. It also aids dysmenorrhea, oligomenorrhea, reduces urinary output for kapha-type diabetes, and rejuvenates skin.²²

Bhallatak Formulations:

Bhallatak formulations are extensively documented in Ayurvedic texts, notably in the Bharat Bhaishajya Ratnakar, which lists around 40 formulations. Prominent treatises by Charak, Sushrut, and Vagbhatt explore various uses of Bhallatak.²³Charak details 10 formulations under Rasayanavidhi, while Sushrut and Vagbhatt mention the use of seeds in therapeutic courses known as Vardhmanprayog. Bhallatakused in several formulations, such as Amritbhallatak Avaleha, Suranvatak, Bhallatak Parpati, Sanjeevani Vati, and Narsimha choorna.²⁴

Pharmacological Activity:

Numerous drugs derived from the Semecarpus anacardium plant are available for treating various conditions, like skin diseases, malignant growths, fungal infections, excessive menstruation, vaginal discharge, fever, hemoptysis, constipation and intestinal parasites as documented in texts like Charaka and Sushruta.Research has highlighted several pharmacological activities of Semecarpus anacardium nuts, including.

· Antioxidant activity

· Antimicrobial Activity

· Anti-inflammatory Activity

· AnticarcinogenicActivity

· Hypoglycemic Activity

· Antiarthritic activity

· Antiatherogenic

· Hypolipidemic

These effects have been observed in experimental animal models and cell lines using various extraction solvents, showcasing the therapeutic potential of this plant in both modern and traditional medicine.²⁵

Antioxidant Activity:

Antioxidants are crucial for protecting the body. Semecarpus anacardium (SA) is recognized for its strong reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging ability. The nut, fruit, seed, and bark of SA were tested for antioxidant activity. The ethyl acetate extract of SA’s stalk bark exhibited strong antioxidant activity, with the highest total phenolic content (68.67%) among extracts. Bioassay-guided isolation yielded bright yellow crystals identified as butein, which shows antioxidant activity.²⁶

Antimicrobial Activity:

The study explores the antifungal and antimicrobial properties of Bhallataka (SA), focusing on the alcoholic extract of its dry nuts. At a concentration of 400mg/ml, this extract effectively inhibits the growth of Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus, reducing cell size and sporulation. The nut oil of Semecarpus anacardium shows the antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative strains: are Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris. Gram-positive strainsare Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis. The alcoholic extract of dry nuts exhibited bactericidal activity against Gram-negative strains such as Salmonella typhi, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, and Gram-positive strains such as Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Staphylococcus aureus. Alcoholic extracts from other parts of the plant (branch, leaves, green fruit) also shows antibacterial properties.²⁷

Antiinflammatory Activity:

The nut extract of plant has anti-inflammatory activity in Wistar rats, effectively reducing inflammation in models induced by carrageenan, cotton pellets and adjuvant arthritis at a dose of 150mg/kg. The presence of flavonoids in the extract shows the anti-inflammatory effect by: reducing edema (swelling), inhibiting inflammatory mediators such as serotonin and histamine, inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). The extract's effects on bothchronic and acute inflammation were comparable to indomethacin at 30mg/kg, supporting its potential effectiveness in treating inflammation.²⁸

Anti cancer Activity:

Semecarpus anacardium is being studied for its antitumor properties, with certain extracts from the whole fruit showing promise in preclinical studies of Breast cancer, liver cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer and leukemia. Notably, the chloroform extract of the nut (pericarp and seed) provide symptomatic relief for patients with esophageal cancer and myeloid leukemia. In light of these findings, fractionation studies were conducted tocharacterize and isolate the active principles in S. anacardium. This paper presents observations on the fractionation studies, antitumor activity, and pharmacological effects of some promising fractions of the plant.²⁹

Antiarthritic Activity:

A nut milk extract of Semecarpus anacardium studied against adjuvant-induced arthritis in the rats at the dose of 150mg/kg body weight for 14 days. The extract was effective in decreasing lipid peroxide levels in plasma and tissues. This was attributed to the extract’s ability to modulate the cellular antioxidant defense system. Treatment with the milk extract restored antioxidant levels, bringing them closer to normal levels, including: Catalase (CAT), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Glutathione (GSH), Glutathione peroxidase (GPX). The study concludes that nut milk extract has potential as a therapeutic agent intreating arthritis, given its ability to modulate antioxidant systems, reduce inflammation markers, and stabilize cell membranes.³⁰

Antiatherogenic Activity:

The imbalance between the antioxidants and proxidants is main reason for development of atherosclerosis. Antioxidant therapy is useful to prevent this. Cashew nuts have antioxidant properties. They have the ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals and superoxide at low concentrations. The cardioprotective effect of SA has been demonstrated because it reduces tissue and plasma hyperlipidemia by inhibiting intestinal absorption and peripheral effects in general, thus having antiatherogenic activity. Its antiatherosclerotic benefits may be due to its anticoagulant, antioxidant, lipid lowering, aggregation, antiplatelet and lipoprotein lipase inhibitor properties. It has also been shown that the mechanism of triglyceride reduction is partly mediated by the action of lipoprotein lipase.³¹

Hypolipidemic Activity:

Kalpaamruthaa (KA) is a Siddha preparation that contains Semecarpus anacardium (SA), honey andessential oils (EO). KA was studied for its effects on lipid metabolizing enzymes, lipid levels and lipoproteins in cancerous animals. In cancerous animals, free cholesterol, levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids and free fatty acids were increased, while ester cholesterol levels were decreased in liver, kidney and plasma, Treatment with KA and SA reverted these changes to near normal levels.³²

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, Semecarpus anacardium (Ballataka) is an important plant used in traditional medicine for treating various health problems. The plant’s various parts, including roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds, have demonstrated antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. The plant contains phytoconstituents like alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids that help with these effects. Different methods of extraction, like Soxhlet extraction, are used to get these compounds. More research is needed to understand how this plant can be used effectively in medicine.

REFERENCES:

1. Hassan A. et. al. antimicrobial activity of some plantextracts having hepatoprotective effects. J Med Plants Res. 2009; 3:020–3.

2. Schuppan D. et. al. Herbal products for liver diseases: a therapeutic challenge for the new millennium. Hepatology. 1999; 30:1099–1104.

3. Dhalla. S, et. al. Use of complementary and alternative medicine in British Columbia: A survey of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2006; 12:242-8.3

4. Upreti, Sabita, et al. Semecarpus anacardium Varied Medicinal Properties. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2016; 15(4):162.

5. Singer A, Singer PK. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chandauli district. J Ethnopharmacology. 2009; 121(2): 324-33.

6. Jain, Paras, et al. Phytochemical screening and antifungal activity of Semecarpus anacardium L. (an anti-cancer plant). Int J Pharmaceut Sci Res. 2014; 5(5): 1884-1891.

7. Patel, Sanjay R., et al. Antimicrobial Activity of Methanolic Extracts of Mucunapruriens, Semecarpus anacardium, Anethumgraveolens by Agar Disc Diffusion Method. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2010; 3(1): 165-167.

8. Gothoskar SV, et. al. Antitumor activity of SAN-AB: an extract from cashew nut Semecarpus anacardium. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology.1971; 9: 399

9. Mishra, S. K., et al. Shodhana attenuates cytotoxicity of methanolic extract of Semecarpus anacardium nuts. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(2): 567-574.

10. Mythilypriya R, Shanthi P, Sachdanandam P. Analgesic, antipyretic and antiulcer properties of local drugs-- Kalpaamruthaa. Phytother Res. 2007; 21(6): 574-578.

11. Beck, Neeli Rose, and Pradeep Samal. Traditional medicinal plants used by the tribes and rural people of Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh (India). Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2012; 5(10): 1281-1282.

12. Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan et al. Fat-Soluble Bioactives, Fatty Acid Profile and Radical Scavenging Activity of Semecarpus anacardium Seed Oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2010; 87: 885–894.

13. Naidu DS. Constituents of the marking-nut: Semecarpus anacardium Linn. Journal of Indian Institute of Science. 1925; 8: 129-142.

14. Parag AP, Bhanu R. Multielement determination in methanolicsoxhlet leaf extract of Semecarpus anacardium (Linn.f.) by ICP-AES technique. Asian journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2013; 6(3), 132-137.

15. Srinivasan A, Suresh BD, Senthilkumar N, Murugesan S. Physicochemical properties and phytochemical const i tuents of Semecarpus anacardium L. seed oil. Advances in Applied Science Research. 2016; 7(3): 151-154.

16. Vijayalakshmi A., et.al. Screening of flavonoids “quercetin” from the rhizome of Smilax china Linn. for anti-psoriatic activity. Asian Pacific J. Tropical Biomed. 2014; 2(4): 269-275.

17. Ali M.A., et. al. Antidiabetic activity of ethanolic extract of Semecarpus anacardium (Linn.) Stem barks in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2012; 3(8): 2680-2685.

18. Hassan L. E., et.al. Correlation of antiangiogenic, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of some sudanese medicinal plants with phenolic and flavonoids contents. BMC Complementory Alternative Medicine. 2014;14: 406

19. Das N, et.al. Antioxidant activities of ethanolic extracts and fractions of Crescentiacujete leaves and stem bark and the involvement of phenolic compounds. BMC Complementory and Alternative Medicine. 2014; 14: 45.

20. Indap M. A., et al. Anti tumour and pharmacological effects of the oil from Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1983; 27(2): 83.

21. Jain P, Sharma HP. A potential ethnomedicinal plant: Semecarpus anacardium Linn. - A review. Int J Res Pharm Chem. 2013; 3: 564-72.

22. Lekurwale P S, et. al. Clinical evaluation of Vardhaman Bhallataki Rasayana in the treatment of Amavata. International Journal of Ayurvedic Research. 2014; 5: 6 –11.

23. Agnivesha, Charak Samhita, by Pandeya G, Commentary by Shastri K (RD Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi), 1983; Vol 2, 2^ndedn., 22.

24. Vagbhatta, Ashtanghridaya translated by Board of Scholars (Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi). 1999; 3: 331.

25. Arathi G, Sachdanandam P.Therapeutic effect of Semecarpus anacardiumLinn. nut milk extracton carbohydrate metabolizing and mitochondrial TCA cycle and respiratory chain enzymes in mammary carcinoma rats. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2003; 55(9): 1283-90.

26. Naveen K, Ganesh BB, Laxmikoteswramma K, Malla RR. Antioxidant, cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory activities of cashew nut shell extract. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Clinical Research. 2013; 6(1): 213-219.

27. Zabin KB, et.al. Phytochemical and antimicrobial activity analysis of cashew nuts. International Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Technology. 2012; 1(2): 2277 – 3436.

28. Dubey, Supriya, and Abha Shukla. Antidiabetic and Anti-inflammatory activity of Green Solvent Extracts of Heterospatheelata fruits. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2024; 17(1): 163-168.

29. Ramprasath VR, et. al. Anti-inflammatory Effect of Semecarpus anacardium LINN. Benefits of fruit extracts in acute and chronic pain. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2004; 27(12): 2028-2031.

30. Vijayalakshmi T, et.al. Effects of cashew milk extract on glycogenolytic enzymes and lysosome stability in rats with adjuvant arthritis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.1997; 58: 1-8.

31. Mary NK, et.al. Antiatherogenic effect of Caps HT2, a herbal Ayurvedic medicine formulation. Phytomedicine. 2003; 10(6): 474-482.

32. Sharma A, et.al. Semecarpus anacardium (Bhilawa) nut shell extract exhibits hypocholesterolemic effect in rabbits fed cholesterol-lowering diet. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology.1995;33:444

Received on 02.05.2025 Revised on 20.06.2025

Accepted on 05.08.2025 Published on 10.10.2025

Available online from October 18, 2025

Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem. 2025; 17(4):289-295.

DOI: 10.52711/0975-4385.2025.00046

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.

Sr No.	Minerals	Conc. in ppm (approx.)	Sr No.	Minerals	Conc. in ppm (approx.)
1.	Potassium (K)	58	7.	Calcium (Ca)	9
2.	Sodium (Na)	47	8.	Boron (B)	6
3.	Magnesium (Mg)	45	9.	Copper (Cu)	0.9
4.	Silicon (Si)	27	10.	Zinc (Zn)	0.6
5.	Sulphur (S)	17	11.	Manganese (Mn)	0.6
6.	Phosphorus (P)	10	12.	Nickel (Ni)	0.4